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<title>Naval architecture</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Naval architecture</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Naval engineering" redirects here. For the physical construction of ships and other floating vessels, see <a href="Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a>. For the design of shipboard systems, and the engineering of other ocean systems and structures, see <a href="Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine engineering</a>.</div>

<p><b>Naval architecture</b>, or <b>naval engineering</b>, is an <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> discipline incorporating elements of mechanical, electrical, electronic, software and safety engineering as applied to the <a href="Engineering_design_process" title="Engineering design process">engineering design process</a>, <a href="Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a>, maintenance, and operation of <a href="Watercraft" title="Watercraft">marine vessels</a> and structures.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation (classification) and calculations during all stages of the life of a marine vehicle. Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, <a href="Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">construction</a>, <a href="Sea_trial" title="Sea trial">trials</a>, operation and maintenance, launching and <a href="Dry-docking" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry-docking">dry-docking</a> are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are also required for ships being <a href="Ship#Repair_and_conversion" title="Ship">modified</a> (by means of conversion, rebuilding, modernization, or <a href="Ship_repair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship repair">repair</a>). Naval architecture also involves formulation of safety regulations and damage-control rules and the approval and certification of ship designs to meet <a href="Statutory" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory">statutory</a> and non-statutory requirements.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_subjects">Main subjects</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Computational_fluid_dynamics" title="Computational fluid dynamics">Computational fluid dynamics</a></div>

<p>The word "vessel" includes every description of <a href="Watercraft" title="Watercraft">watercraft</a>, mainly <a href="Ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Ships">ships</a> and <a href="Boats" class="mw-redirect" title="Boats">boats</a>, but also including non-displacement craft, <a href="Ground_effect_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground effect vehicle">WIG craft</a> and <a href="Seaplane" title="Seaplane">seaplanes</a>, used or capable of being used as a means of <a href="Water_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Water transport">transportation on water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principal elements of naval architecture are detailed in the following sections.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrostatics">Hydrostatics</h3></div>

<p><a href="Hydrostatics" title="Hydrostatics">Hydrostatics</a> concerns the conditions to which the vessel is subjected while at rest in water and to its ability to remain afloat. This involves computing <a href="Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, <a href="Displacement_(ship)" title="Displacement (ship)">displacement</a>, and other hydrostatic properties such as <a href="Sailing_ballast" class="mw-redirect" title="Sailing ballast">trim</a> (the measure of the longitudinal inclination of the vessel) and <a href="Ship_stability" title="Ship stability">stability</a> (the ability of a vessel to restore itself to an upright position after being inclined by wind, sea, or loading conditions).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrodynamics">Hydrodynamics</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Hydrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamics">Hydrodynamics</a> concerns the flow of water around the ship's <a href="Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">hull</a>, <a href="Bow_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow (ship)">bow</a>, and <a href="Stern" title="Stern">stern</a>, and over bodies such as <a href="Propeller" title="Propeller">propeller</a> blades or <a href="Rudder" title="Rudder">rudder</a>, or through thruster tunnels.</li>

<li><a href="Ship_resistance_and_propulsion" title="Ship resistance and propulsion">Ship resistance and propulsion</a> concern resistance towards motion in water primarily caused due to flow of water around the hull. Powering calculation is done based on this.</li>

<li><a href="Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">Propulsion</a> is used to move the vessel through water using <a href="Propellers" class="mw-redirect" title="Propellers">propellers</a>, thrusters, <a href="Pump-jet" title="Pump-jet">water jets</a>, <a href="Sail" title="Sail">sails</a> etc. Engine types are mainly <a href="Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion</a>. Some vessels are electrically powered using <a href="Nuclear_marine_propulsion" title="Nuclear marine propulsion">nuclear</a> or <a href="Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Ship_motions" title="Ship motions">Ship motions</a> involves motions of the vessel in seaway and its responses in waves and wind.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Controllability (maneuvering) involves controlling and maintaining position and direction of the vessel.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flotation_and_stability">Flotation and stability</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Ship_motions" title="Ship motions">ship motions</a>, <a href="Ship_stability" title="Ship stability">ship stability</a>, <a href="Initial_stability" title="Initial stability">initial stability</a>, <a href="Secondary_stability" title="Secondary stability">secondary stability</a>, and <a href="Limit_of_positive_stability" title="Limit of positive stability">limit of positive stability</a></div>

<p>While atop a liquid surface a floating body has 6 degrees of freedom in its movements, these are categorized in either translation or rotation.

</p>

<ul><li>Translation

<ul><li>Sway: transverse</li>

<li>Surge: fore and aft</li>

<li>Heave: vertical</li></ul></li>

<li>Rotation

<ul><li>Yaw: about a vertical axis</li>

<li>Pitch or trim: about a transverse axis</li>

<li>Roll or heel: about a fore and aft axis</li></ul></li></ul>

<p>Longitudinal stability for longitudinal inclinations, the stability depends upon the distance between the center of gravity and the longitudinal meta-center. In other words, the basis in which the ship maintains its center of gravity is its distance set equally apart from both the aft and forward section of the ship.

</p><p>While a body floats on a liquid surface it still encounters the force of gravity pushing down on it. In order to stay afloat and avoid sinking there is an opposed force acting against the body known as the hydrostatic pressures. The forces acting on the body must be of the same magnitude and same line of motion in order to maintain the body at equilibrium. This description of equilibrium is only present when a freely floating body is in still water, when other conditions are present the magnitude of which these forces shifts drastically creating the swaying motion of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the body, in other words, the mass of the body is equal to the mass of the water displaced by the body. This adds an upward force to the body by the amount of surface area times the area displaced in order to create an equilibrium between the surface of the body and the surface of the water.

</p><p>The stability of a ship under most conditions is able to overcome any form or restriction or resistance encountered in rough seas; however, ships have undesirable roll characteristics when the balance of oscillations in roll is two times that of oscillations in heave, thus causing the ship to capsize.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structures">Structures</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Superstructure" title="Superstructure">Superstructure</a>, <a href="Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull design</a>, and <a href="Shell_plating" title="Shell plating">Shell plating</a></div>

<p><a href="Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structures</a> involves selection of material of construction, <a href="Structural_analysis" title="Structural analysis">structural analysis</a> of global and local strength of the vessel, vibration of the structural components and structural responses of the vessel during <a href="Seakeeping" title="Seakeeping">motions in seaway</a>. Depending on type of ship, the structure and design will vary in what material to use as well as how much of it. Some ships are made from glass reinforced plastics but the vast majority are steel with possibly some aluminium in the superstructure.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The complete structure of the ship is designed with panels shaped in a rectangular form consisting of steel plating supported on four edges. Combined in a large surface area the Grillages create the hull of the ship<b>,</b> deck, and bulkheads while still providing mutual support of the frames. Though the structure of the ship is sturdy enough to hold itself together the main force it has to overcome is longitudinal bending creating a strain against its hull, its structure must be designed so that the material is disposed as much forward and aft as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The principal longitudinal elements are the deck, shell plating, inner bottom all of which are in the form of grillages, and additional longitudinal stretching to these. The dimensions of the ship are in order to create enough spacing between the stiffeners in prevention of buckling. Warships have used a longitudinal system of stiffening that many modern commercial vessels have adopted. This system was widely used in early merchant ships such as the <a href="SS_Great_Eastern" title="SS Great Eastern">SS Great Eastern</a>, but later shifted to transversely framed structure another concept in ship hull design that proved more practical. This system was later implemented on modern vessels such as tankers because of its popularity and was then named the <a href="Isherwood_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Isherwood System">Isherwood System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The arrangement of the Isherwood system consists of stiffening decks both side and bottom by longitudinal members, they are separated enough so they have the same distance between them as the frames and beams. This system works by spacing out the transverse members that support the longitudinal by about 3 or 4 meters, with the wide spacing this causes the traverse strength needed by displacing the amount of force the bulkheads provide.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrangements">Arrangements</h3></div>

<p>Arrangements involves <a href="Concept_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Concept design">concept design</a>, layout and access, <a href="Fire_protection" title="Fire protection">fire protection</a>, allocation of spaces, <a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">ergonomics</a> and <a href="Tonnage" title="Tonnage">capacity</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction">Construction</h3></div>

<p><a href="Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Construction</a> depends on the material used. When steel or aluminium is used this involves welding of the plates and profiles after <a href="Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">rolling</a>, marking, <a href="Machining" title="Machining">cutting</a> and <a href="Bending_(metalworking)" title="Bending (metalworking)">bending</a> as per the <a href="Structural_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural design">structural design</a> drawings or models, followed by erection and <a href="Ceremonial_ship_launching" title="Ceremonial ship launching">launching</a>. <a href="Adhesive_bonding" title="Adhesive bonding">Other joining techniques</a> are used for other materials like <a href="Fibre_reinforced_plastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibre reinforced plastic">fibre reinforced plastic</a> and <a href="Glass-reinforced_plastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass-reinforced plastic">glass-reinforced plastic</a>. The process of construction is thought-out cautiously while considering all factors like safety, strength of structure, hydrodynamics, and ship arrangement. Each factor considered presents a new option for materials to consider as well as ship orientation. When the strength of the structure is considered the acts of ship collision are considered in the way that the ships structure is altered. Therefore, the properties of materials are considered carefully as applied material on the struck ship has elastic properties, the energy absorbed by the ship being struck is then deflected in the opposite direction, so both ships go through the process of rebounding to prevent further damage.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_craft">Science and craft</h2></div>

<p>Traditionally, naval architecture has been more craft than science. The suitability of a vessel's shape was judged by looking at a half-model of a vessel or a prototype. Ungainly shapes or abrupt transitions were frowned on as being flawed. This included rigging, deck arrangements, and even fixtures. Subjective descriptors such as <i>ungainly</i>, <i>full</i>, and <i>fine</i> were used as a substitute for the <a href="Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">more precise terms</a> used today. A vessel was, and still is described as having a ‘fair’ shape. The term ‘fair’ is meant to denote not only a smooth transition from fore to aft but also a shape that was ‘right.’ Determining what is ‘right’ in a particular situation in the absence of definitive supporting analysis encompasses the art of naval architecture to this day.

</p><p>Modern low-cost digital <a href="Computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computers">computers</a> and dedicated <a href="Software" title="Software">software</a>, combined with extensive research to correlate full-scale, <a href="Towing_tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Towing tank">towing tank</a> and computational data, have enabled naval architects to more accurately predict the performance of a marine vehicle. These tools are used for <a href="Stability_conditions_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stability conditions (watercraft)">static stability</a> (intact and damaged), dynamic stability, resistance, powering, hull development, <a href="Structural_analysis" title="Structural analysis">structural analysis</a>, green water modelling, and slamming analysis. Data are regularly shared in international conferences sponsored by <a href="Royal_Institution_of_Naval_Architects" title="Royal Institution of Naval Architects">RINA</a>, <a href="Society_of_Naval_Architects_and_Marine_Engineers" title="Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers">Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME)</a> and others. <a href="Computational_Fluid_Dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational Fluid Dynamics">Computational Fluid Dynamics</a> is being applied to predict the response of a floating body in a random sea.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_naval_architect">The naval architect</h2></div>

<p>Due to the complexity associated with operating in a marine environment, naval architecture is a co-operative effort between groups of technically skilled individuals who are specialists in particular fields, often coordinated by a lead naval architect.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This inherent complexity also means that the analytical tools available are much less evolved than those for designing aircraft, cars and even spacecraft. This is due primarily to the paucity of data on the environment the marine vehicle is required to work in and the complexity of the interaction of waves and wind on a marine structure.

</p><p>A naval architect is an <a href="Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a> who is responsible for the design, classification, survey, construction, and/or repair of ships, boats, other marine vessels, and offshore structures, both commercial and military, including:

</p>

<dl><dd><ul><li><a href="Merchant_ship" title="Merchant ship">Merchant ships</a> – <a href="Oil_tanker" title="Oil tanker">oil tankers</a>, <a href="LNG_carrier" title="LNG carrier">gas tankers</a>, <a href="Cargo_ship" title="Cargo ship">cargo ships</a>, <a href="Bulk_carrier" title="Bulk carrier">bulk carriers</a>, <a href="Container_ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Container ships">container ships</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferry" title="Ferry">Passenger/vehicle ferries</a>, <a href="Cruise_ship" title="Cruise ship">cruise ships</a></li>

<li><a href="Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a> – <a href="Frigate" title="Frigate">frigates</a>, <a href="Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyers</a>, <a href="Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carriers</a>, amphibious ships</li>

<li><a href="Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a> and underwater vehicles</li>

<li><a href="Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">Icebreakers</a></li>

<li><a href="High_speed_craft" class="mw-redirect" title="High speed craft">High speed craft</a> – <a href="Hovercraft" title="Hovercraft">hovercraft</a>, <a href="Catamaran" title="Catamaran">multi-hull ships</a>, <a href="Hydrofoil" title="Hydrofoil">hydrofoil</a> craft</li>

<li>Workboats – <a href="Barge" title="Barge">barges</a>, <a href="Fishing_boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing boat">fishing boats</a>, <a href="Anchor_handling_tug_supply_vessel" title="Anchor handling tug supply vessel">anchor handling tug supply vessels</a>, <a href="Platform_supply_vessel" title="Platform supply vessel">platform supply vessels</a>, <a href="Tug_boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Tug boat">tug boats</a>, pilot vessels, rescue craft</li>

<li><a href="Yacht" title="Yacht">Yachts</a>, power boats, and other recreational watercraft</li>

<li><a href="Offshore_platform" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore platform">Offshore platforms</a> and <a href="Subsea" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsea">subsea</a> developments</li></ul></dd></dl>

<p>Some of these vessels are amongst the largest (such as <a href="Supertankers" class="mw-redirect" title="Supertankers">supertankers</a>), most complex (such as <a href="Aircraft_carriers" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft carriers">aircraft carriers</a>), and highly valued movable structures produced by mankind. They are typically the most efficient method of transporting the world's raw materials and products. Modern engineering on this scale is essentially a team activity conducted by specialists in their respective fields and disciplines.

Naval architects integrate these activities. This demanding leadership role requires managerial qualities and the ability to bring together the often-conflicting demands of the various design constraints to produce a product which is fit for the purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In addition to this leadership role, a naval architect also has a specialist function in ensuring that a safe, economic, environmentally sound and <a href="Seaworthy" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaworthy">seaworthy</a> design is produced. To undertake all these tasks, a naval architect must have an understanding of many branches of engineering and must be in the forefront of high technology areas. They must be able to effectively utilize the services provided by scientists, lawyers, accountants, and business people of many kinds.

</p><p>Naval architects typically work for <a href="Shipyard" title="Shipyard">shipyards</a>, ship owners, design firms and consultancies, equipment manufacturers, <a href="Classification_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification society">Classification societies</a>, regulatory bodies (<a href="Admiralty_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Admiralty law">Admiralty law</a>), <a href="Navy" title="Navy">navies</a>, and governments.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_naval_architecture_software">List of naval architecture software</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_CAx_companies" title="List of CAx companies">List of CAx companies</a></div>

<ul><li><a href="Aveva" title="Aveva">Aveva - Tribon</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="FORAN_System" title="FORAN System">FORAN System</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhinoceros_3D#Orca3D" title="Rhinoceros 3D">Orca3D</a> - plugin for <a href="Rhinoceros_3D" title="Rhinoceros 3D">Rhinoceros 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Safehull" title="Safehull">Safehull</a></li>

<li><a href="Sesam_(structural_analysis_software)" title="Sesam (structural analysis software)">Sesam</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Autonomous_cargo_ship" title="Autonomous cargo ship">Autonomous cargo ship</a></li>

<li><a href="Bulkhead_(partition)" title="Bulkhead (partition)">Bulkhead (partition)</a> – Vertical partition inside a ship</li>

<li><a href="Collier_(ship)" title="Collier (ship)">Collier (ship)</a> – Bulk cargo ship to carry coal</li>

<li><a href="Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a> – Branch of civil engineering</li>

<li><a href="Engine_officer" title="Engine officer">Engine officer</a> – Licensed mariner responsible for propulsion plants and support systems</li>

<li><a href="Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull (watercraft)</a> – Watertight buoyant body of a ship or boat</li>

<li><a href="Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic engineering</a> – Sub-discipline of civil engineering</li>

<li><a href="Hydrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamics">Hydrodynamics</a> – Study of liquids in motion</li>

<li><a href="Hydrostatics" title="Hydrostatics">Hydrostatics</a> – Branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest</li>

<li><a href="International_Maritime_Organization" title="International Maritime Organization">International Maritime Organization</a> – Specialized agency of the United Nations</li>

<li><a href="List_of_maritime_colleges" title="List of maritime colleges">List of maritime colleges</a></li>

<li><a href="Longitudinal_framing" title="Longitudinal framing">Longitudinal framing</a> – Type of ship hull structure</li>

<li><a href="Marine_architecture" title="Marine architecture">Marine architecture</a> – Branch of architecture focused on coastal, near-shore and off-shore construction</li>

<li><a href="Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine engineering</a> – Engineering and design of shipboard systems</li>

<li><a href="Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">Marine propulsion</a> – Systems for generating thrust for ships and boats on water</li>

<li><a href="Naval_ship" title="Naval ship">Naval ship</a> – Military ship used by a navy</li>

<li><a href="Ocean_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean engineering">Ocean engineering</a> – Engineering and design of shipboard systems<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li>

<li><a href="Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore construction</a> – Installation of structures and facilities in a marine environment</li>

<li><a href="Royal_Institution_of_Naval_Architects" title="Royal Institution of Naval Architects">Royal Institution of Naval Architects</a> – International organisation representing naval architects</li>

<li><a href="Seakeeping" title="Seakeeping">Seakeeping</a> – Response of a vessel to sea conditions</li>

<li><a href="Seaworthiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaworthiness">Seaworthiness</a> – Response of a vessel to sea conditions<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li>

<li><a href="Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a> – Construction of ships and floating vessels</li>

<li><a href="Ship_classification_society" title="Ship classification society">Ship classification society</a> – Organisation establishing technical standards for ships and offshore structures</li>

<li><a href="Ship_motions" title="Ship motions">Ship motions</a> – Ships motions as defined by the six degrees of freedom of motion</li>

<li><a href="Ship_stability" title="Ship stability">Ship stability</a> – Ship response to disturbance from an upright condition</li>

<li><a href="Society_of_Naval_Architects_and_Marine_Engineers" title="Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers">Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers</a> – Global professional society</li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020170147/https://www.rina.org.uk/careers_in_naval_architecture.html">"Careers in Naval Architecture"</a>. <i>www.rina.org.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rina.org.uk/careers_in_naval_architecture.html">the original</a> on 2017-10-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-13</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Biran, Adrian; (2003). Ship hydrostatics and stability (1st Ed.) – <a href="Butterworth-Heinemann" title="Butterworth-Heinemann">Butterworth-Heinemann</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7506-4988-7</bdi></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Convention On The <a href="International_Regulations_for_Preventing_Collisions_at_Sea" title="International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea">International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea</a>, 1972, As Amended; <a href="International_Maritime_Organization" title="International Maritime Organization">International Maritime Organization</a>; <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>92-801-4167-8</bdi></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis V, Edward (Ed.); (June 1989). Principles of Naval Architecture (2nd Rev.) Vol. 1 – <a href="Society_of_Naval_Architects_and_Marine_Engineers" title="Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers">Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-939773-00-7</bdi></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usna.edu/NAOE/academics/en455.php">"United States Naval Academy Seakeeping and Maneuvering Course Notes by C.Q. Judge and A. Ibrahim"</a>. <i>www.usna.edu</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTupper1996" class="citation book cs1">Tupper, Eric (1996). <i>Introduction to Naval Architecture</i>. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNeves2016" class="citation journal cs1">Neves, M. A. S. (2016). "Dynamic stability of ships in regular and irregular seas - An Overview". <i>Ocean Engineering</i>. <b>120</b>: <span class="nowrap">362–</span>370. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016OcEng.120..362N">2016OcEng.120..362N</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.oceaneng.2016.02.010">10.1016/j.oceaneng.2016.02.010</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPrabowo2017" class="citation journal cs1">Prabowo, A. R. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tws.2017.02.022">"Effects of the rebounding of a striking ship on structural crashworthiness during ship-ship collision"</a>. <i>Thin-Walled Structures</i>. <b>115</b>: <span class="nowrap">225–</span>239. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tws.2017.02.022">10.1016/j.tws.2017.02.022</a></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navalengineers.org/About/Brochure/naval_engineering.html">American Society of Naval Engineers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226035256/http://www.navalengineers.org/About/Brochure/naval_engineering.html">Archived</a> December 26, 2008, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Naval engineering brochure.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090512122916/https://www.opm.gov/fedclass/gs0800P.pdf">"Job Family Standard for Professional Work in the Engineering and Architecture Group, U.S. Office of Personnel Management, pp. 43–45"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opm.gov/fedclass/gs0800P.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2009-05-12.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mpofcinci.com/blog/best-boat-design-software-tools/">"50 Best Boat Design Software Tools [2025 Reviews] - Metalphoto of Cincinnati"</a>. <i>www.mpofcinci.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-07-30</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFFerreiro2007" class="citation book cs1">Ferreiro, Larrie D. (2007). <i>Ships and Science: The Birth of Naval Architecture in the Scientific Revolution, 1600–1800</i>. MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-06259-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFerreiro2020" class="citation book cs1">Ferreiro, Larrie D. (2020). <i>Bridging the Seas: The Rise of Naval Architecture in the Industrial Age, 1800–2000</i>. MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-53807-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Paasch, H. <i>Dictionary of Naval Terms, from Keel to Truck</i>. London: G. Philip & Son, 1908.</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Seamanship_(seafaring)_topics43" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Seamanship (seafaring) topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Seamanship" title="Seamanship">Seamanship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Watchkeeping" title="Watchkeeping">Watchkeeping</a></li>

<li><a href="Ice_navigation" title="Ice navigation">Ice navigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Pilotage</a></li>

<li><a href="Maritime_studies" title="Maritime studies">Maritime studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li>

<li>Nautical terms

<li><a href="Ship_stability" title="Ship stability">Ship stability</a></li>

<li><a href="Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Hydrodynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Ship-to-ship_cargo_transfer" title="Ship-to-ship cargo transfer">Ship-to-ship cargo transfer</a></li>

<li><a href="Propeller_walk" title="Propeller walk">Propeller walk</a></li>

<li><a href="Passage_planning" title="Passage planning">Passage planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Maritime_law" title="Maritime law">Maritime law</a></li>

<li><a href="Dry_dock" title="Dry dock">Dry-docking</a></li>

<li><a href="Ropework" title="Ropework">Ropework</a></li>

<li><a href="Knot" title="Knot">Knots</a></li>

<li><a href="Man_overboard_rescue_turn" title="Man overboard rescue turn">Man overboard rescue turn</a></li>

<li><a href="Buoy" title="Buoy">Buoyage</a></li>

<li><a href="Mooring" title="Mooring">Mooring</a></li>

<li><a href="Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchoring</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_anchor" title="Sea anchor">Sea anchor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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